Sir Faisal Amin

This list identifies words and constructions that sometimes require attention in writing projects. Some of the entries are pairs of words that are quite different in meaning yet similar enough in spelling to be confused (e.g. principal, principle). Some are nonstandard usages (e.g. alright) and informal constructions (e.g. being as=because) that are not acceptable in formal writing.
accept, except To accept is "To agree to something or to receive something willingly." To except is "to exclude or omit." As a preposition, except means "but" or "excluding."
advice, advise You advise someone. What you give that person is advice.
affect, effect Affect is a verb meaning either "to influence" or "to pretend." Effect as a verb means "to accomplish or to produce as a result." As a noun, effect means "result."
a lot This little expression causes a lot of trouble. It is two words, not one. The misspelling "alot" is nonstandard. The verb to partition is to "allot."
all right The misspelling "alright" is nonstandard usage. The two words are separate.
allusion, illusion Allusion is a reference to something literary or historical with which the reader is presumably familiar. An illusion is a false, misleading, or overly optimistic idea.
already, all ready Already is an adverb meaning "even now" or "previously." All ready is an adjective phrase meaning "completely prepared." (We are already late. We are all ready for the tournament.)
alter, altar Alter means change ("My instructor wants me to alter the format of my paper") and an altar is a religious object ("I was married at the altar of my church").
altogether, all together Altogether means "entirely" or "on the whole." All together means that all parts of a group are considered together. (This news story is altogether false. [entirely] A tug of war is won by a team pulling all together.)
among, between Between expresses the joining or separation of two people or things. Among refers to a group of three or more.
Nonstandard: We shared the pie between the three of us.
Standard: We shared the pie among the three of us.
anxious, eager Anxious should not be used in college writing to mean "eager," as in "Gretel is anxious to see her gift." Eager is the preferred word in this context.
awful, awfully The real objection to awful is that it is worked to death. Instead of being reserved for situations in which it means "awe inspiring," It is used excessively as a utility word. Use both awful and awfully sparingly.
bad, badly The ordinary uses of bad as an adjective cause no difficulty. As a predicate adjective ("An hour after dinner, I began to feel bad.), it is sometimes confused with the adverb badly. After the verbs look, feel, and seem, the adjective is preferred. Say: "It looks bad for our side," "I feel bad about the quarrel," "Our predicament seemed bad this morning." But do not use bad when an adverb is required, as in "He played badly," "a badly torn suit."
being as, because The use of being as for "because" or "since" in such sentences as "Being as I am an American, I believe in democracy" is nonstandard. Say "Because I am an American, I believe in democracy."
between you and I Both pronouns are objects of the preposition between and so should be in the objective case: "Between you and me."
beside, besides Beside means "at the side of." Besides means "in addition to." (Secret Service agents stand beside the President. There are other motives besides greed.)
can't hardly A confusion between cannot and can hardly. The construction is unacceptable in formal writing. Sue cannot, can't or can hardly.
capital, capitol Capitol is the spelling used for the government building ("We could see the capitol from our hotel building"), while capital is the correct spelling for all other uses ("What is the capital of Colorado?").
choose, chose Choose is a present tense verb ("Choose your partners"), while chose is a past tense verb ("The girls chose two seniors").
cite, site, sight Cite means to indicate ("You must cite all sources used in your paper"). A site is a place ("Independence is the site of Harry Truman's home"). A sight is a vision ("You're a sight for sore eyes!").
coarse, course Coarse is an adjective meaning rough or crude ("He uses coarse language"), while course is a noun meaning a path of action ("The course in speech helped my diction").
complement, compliment Complement means to make whole or complete or that which makes whole or complete ("The complement, or full crew, is 600 people). Compliment means respect, affection, or esteem ("Convey my compliments to the captain").
consul, council, councilor, counsel, counselor Consul is a diplomat to a foreign country. Council refers to a group to discuss and take action on official matters ("Student Council"); a councilor is a member of such a group. Counsel is advice or to advise. A counselor ("your guidance counselor") is an adviser.
des' ert, desert', dessert A desert (pronounced des' ert) is a dry region. To desert (pronounced desert') is to leave. The dessert is the last part a meal ("We ate chocolate cake for dessert).
different from, different than Although both different from and different than are common American usages, the preferred idiom is different from.
emigrant, immigrant An emigrant is a person who moves out of a country; an immigrant is one who moves into a country. Thus, refugees from Central America and elsewhere who settle in the United States are emigrants from their native countries and immigrants here. A similar distinction holds for the verbs emigrate and immigrate.
fewer, less Fewer is used to describe things that can be counted. Less refers to quantity or degree. (Patrick has fewer headaches than he used to have. There has been less rain this year than last year. This dishwasher will give you less trouble than that one.)
formally, formerly Formally means in a formal or standardized manner ("for weddings one should dress formally"). Formerly means previously ("The high ridges of the Blue Ridge Mountains were formerly the bed of an ancient sea").
further, farther; furthest, farthest Generally, in good usage, farther is used for comparisons of distance and further for anything else. (Robin's punt went farther than Jenny's. [distance] Pablo has advanced further in his study of English. [extent])
good, well Good is an adjective. Do not use it to modify a verb. Well is an adverb except in three uses: (1) when used to mean "healthy," (2) when used to mean "neatly groomed" or "attractively dressed," and (3) when used to mean "satisfactory."
had of, off of The use of is both unnecessary and undesirable.
Nonstandard: If you had of played, we would have won.
Standard: If you had played, we would have won.
Nonstandard: The box fell off of the shelf.
Standard: The box fell off the shelf.
hopefully Opinion is divided about the acceptability of attaching this adverb loosely to a sentence and using it to mean "I hope": "Hopefully, the plane will arrive on schedule." This usage is gaining acceptance, but there is still strong objection to it. In college writing the safe decision is to avoid it.
imply, infer Imply means to suggest something. Infer means to derive a certain meaning from a remark or an action.
in, into In means "inside something." Into tells of motion from the outside to the inside of something.
Nonstandard: Carl dove in the water.
Standard: Carl dove into the water.
Nonstandard: I drove the car in the garage.
Standard: I drove the car into the garage.
inside of, outside of Inside of and outside of generally should not be used as compound prepositions. In place of the compound prepositions in "The display is inside of the auditorium" and "The pickets were waiting outside of the gate," write "Inside the auditorium" and "outside the gate." Inside of is acceptable in most formal writing when it means "in less than": "I'll be there inside of an hour." The more formal term is within.
Both inside of and outside of are appropriate when inside or outside is a noun followed by an of phrase: "The inside of the house is attractive"; "He painted the outside of his boat dark green."
irregardless A nonstandard variant of regardless. Do not use it.
lead, led, lead Lead (pronounced leed) means to go first ("You lead because you know the way"). Led is the past tense of lead ("He led us five miles out of the way"). Lead is a heavy metal; also the graphite in a pencil ("The books are as heavy as lead").
lie, lay Lie means to recline. Lay means to put or place something.
like, as, as if While the use of like as a conjunction is common in speaking, its use as a conjunction is not fully established in writing. Like is better used as a preposition.
Not accepted: I feel like Susan Anderson does about consumers' rights.
Better: I feel as Susan Anderson does about consumers' rights.
Not accepted: Ralph looked like he had seen a ghost.
Better: Ralph looked as if he had seen a ghost.
loose, lose Loose means to be free, not close together ("He has two loose front teeth"). To lose means to suffer loss ("Do not lose your tickets").
moral, morale Moral means good ("We admire a moral person"); it is also a lesson on conduct ("The moral of the story. . . "). Morale is a mental condition, spirit ("The team's morale was low?").
most, almost Almost is an adverb meaning "nearly." Most is an adjective meaning "the greater part."
Nonstandard: Most everyone attended the game.
Standard: Almost everyone attended the game.
of When could have, might have, must have, and similar phrases are spoken, they usually come out as contractions: Could've, might've, must've and so on. Because the contracted form 've sounds like of, some people mistakenly write could of, might of, must of.
Nonstandard: That plant must of been over watered.
Standard: That plant must have been over watered.
past, passed Past is a noun, adjective or preposition ("Adele read the minutes of the past meeting" "The dog walked past the cat"). Passed is a verb, the past tense of pass ("We passed the papers to the front").
personal, personnel Personal means "of a person": "a personal opinion," "a personal matter." Personnel refers to the people in an organization, especially employees: "Administrative personnel will not be affected."
piece, peace Piece is a portion of a larger object ("a piece of pie") and peace means tranquility ("peace and quiet").
principal, principle The basic meaning of principal is "chief" or "most important." It is used in this sense both as a noun and as an adjective: "The principal of a school, " "the principal point." It is also used to refer to a capital sum of money, as contrasted with interest on the money: "He can live on the interest without touching the principal." Principle is used only as a noun and means "rule," "law," or "controlling idea": "the principle of 'one man, one vote'"; "Cheating is against my principles."
proceed, precede To proceed is to "go forward"; to precede means "to go ahead of"; "The blockers preceded the runner as the football team proceeded toward the goal line."
rain, rein, reign Rain means precipitation ("The rain fell gently on the flowers"). Rein means a harness strap ("The horse's reins") or control ("The reins of government"). To reign means to rule or a period of rule ("Queen Elizabeth reigns over England").
refer back A confusion between look back and refer. This usage is objected to in formal writing on the ground that since the re- of refer means "back," refer back is redundant. Refer back is acceptable when it means "refer again" ("The bill was referred back to the committee"); otherwise, use refer ("Let me refer you to page 17").
respectfully, respectively Respectfully means with respect or full of respect ("The reporters listed respectfully to the senator's request"). Respectively means each in the order given ("Nick, Margo, and Ted are nineteen, seventeen, and fifteen, respectively").
so (conj.) The use of "so" as a connective ("The salesperson refused to exchange the merchandise; so we went to the manager") is thoroughly respectable, but its overuse in formal writing is objectionable. There are other good transitional connectives -- accordingly, for that reason, on that account, therefore -- that could be used to relieve the monotony of a series of so's. Occasional use of subordination ("When the salesperson refused to exchange the merchandise, we went to the manager") also brings variety to the style.
stationery, stationary Stationery is writing paper ("Perfumed stationery is in bad taste"), while stationary means in a fixed position ("The desk is stationary").
than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparison; then is an adverb indicating time. Do not confuse the two: "I would rather write in the morning than in the afternoon. My thinking seems to be clearer then."
that, which, who That refers to persons or things, which refers to things, and who refers to persons. That introduces a restrictive clause; which usually introduces a nonrestrictive clause: "John argued that he was not prepared to take the exam. The exam, which had been scheduled for some time, could not be changed." "Anyone who was not ready should have to take the test anyway."
there, their, they're Although these words are pronounced alike, they have different meanings. There indicates place: "Look at that dog over there." Their indicates possession: "I am sure it is their dog." They're is a contraction for "they are": "They're probably not home."
unique The formal meaning of unique is "sole" or "only" or "being the only one of its kind": "Adam was unique in being the only man who never had a mother." The use of "unique" to mean "rare" or "unusual" ("Americans watched their television sets anxiously as astronauts in the early moon landings had the unique experience of walking on the moon") has long been popular, but some people still object to this usage. The use of "unique" to mean merely "uncommon" ("a unique sweater") is generally frowned upon. Unique should not be modified by adverbs that express degree; very, more, most, rather.
whether, weather Use whether as in the phrase "whether or not" and use weather when referring to atmospheric or climatic conditions.
who, whom Who is the nominative case ("He is the one who will be elected"), while whom is the objective case ("He is the one whom you have been seeking").
who's, whose Who's is a contraction of who is or who has ("Who's there?"), while whose is the possessive of who ("Whose book is that?").
whole, hole Whole means entire ("He ate the whole pie"), while a hole is an empty hollow ("My dog dug a hole in my yard").
write, right, rite Write means to scrawl, to pen, to put thoughts into readable format ("I need to write a letter to my grandmother"). Right means correct ("Your answer is right"). A rite is a ceremony ("The priest read the dying man his last rites") .
you, one The use of you as an indefinite pronoun instead of the formal one is characteristic of an informal style. If you adopt you in an informal paper, be sure that this impersonal use will be recognized by your readers; otherwise, they are likely to interpret a general statement as a personal remark addressed specifically to them. Generally avoid shifting from one to you within a sentence.
your, you're Your is the possessive of you ("Where is your book?") and you're is a contraction of you are ("You're enrolled in French II, aren't you?").


A sentence, in order to be complete, must have a subject and a finite verb and cannot consist only of a dependent clause.
Many off-campus students take the shuttle from the public bus stop. Then, walk from the campus center to their classes.
Eliminate the sentence fragment either by adding the subject, "they," before "walk" or by connecting the fragment to the preceding sentence: "Many off-campus students take the shuttle from the public bus stop and, then, walk from the campus center to their classes."
The company has organized a convention that is to include a number of controversial speakers. All inclined to favor the company's radical agenda.
Eliminate the sentence fragment either by adding the finite verb, "are," after "All" or by connecting the fragment to the preceding sentence: ". . . a number of controversial speakers inclined to favor the company's radical agenda."
Merv had failed to read the assigned chapters. Because he lost his book.
I forgot to stamp the envelope. Which means that my payment is going to be late again.
There are two ways you can eliminate the sentence fragments. First, you can unite the dependent clause to the complete sentence on which it depends: "Because he lost his book, Merv had failed to read the assigned chapters." Second, you can change the fragment into an independent clause, a complete sentence: "This means that my payment is going to be late again."
The two types of run-on sentences, comma splices and fused sentences, are created when the proper punctuation or connecting word is not used between two independent clauses.
Gulliver wrote of four voyages, his first was to the island of Lilliput.
Gulliver despised Yahoos they were his neighbors.
There are four methods by which you can correct run-on sentences:

1. Use a period (instead of a comma) between clauses.
2. Use a semicolon (instead of a comma) between clauses.
3. Use a coordinating conjunction (after a comma) between clauses.
4. Make one clause subordinate to the other.

Examples:

1. "Gulliver wrote of four voyages. His first was to the island of Lilliput."
2. "Gulliver despised Yahoos; they were his neighbors."
3. "Gulliver wrote of four voyages, and his first was to the island of Lilliput."
4. "Gulliver despised Yahoos, although they were his neighbors."

A verb is that part of speech that expresses either action or a state of being. Examples:
The professor lowered the student's grade on account of poor grammar.
The students became proficient in recognizing and correcting their own mistakes.
The subject of the verb is either that which acts or that which is in a state of being. For example, in the first sentence above, "professor" is the subject of the verb, since the professor is that which lowered. In the second sentence above, "student" is the subject of the verb, since it is the student that became.
The basic rule in establishing subject/verb agreement is that verbs must agree in number and person with their subjects. In other words, singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require plural verbs (e.g., he reads, she reads, they read; it was, it is, it will be; they were, they are, they will be).
Most subject/verb agreement errors occur when the sentence is complicated by one or more of the following:

1. The subject and the verb are separated by an intervening phrase.
2. The subject is an indefinite pronoun.
3. The subject is compound.
4. The subject is a collective noun.
5. The subject is singular but has a plural form.

1. The subject and the verb are separated by an intervening phrase.
The arguments provided by the student in his essay were all analogical.
Since the subject of the verb is the plural "arguments," not the singular "student" or "essay," a plural verb is required.
2. The subject is an indefinite pronoun.
Each of the articles is documented.
All of the articles are documented.
In each of the examples, the subject is the indefinite pronoun, not "articles." The prepositional phrase "of the articles" modifies the subject and is not essential to the completeness of the sentence.
Most indefinite pronouns are singular, including "everything," "everyone," "either," and "neither." Plural indefinite pronouns include "all," "many," "few," "both," and "several."
3. The subject is compound.
Wordsworth and Coleridge are my favorite poets.
Rock and roll is here to stay.
In the first example, the subject is compound ("Wordsworth and Coleridge") and so requires a plural verb, whereas in the second example, the subject is singular.
4. The subject is a collective noun.
For this essay, her intended audience is the House of Representatives.
His intended audience are gun owners.
Whereas it is true that, in both of the examples, the intended audience consists of a multitude of persons, in the first example that audience is easily thought of as a single unit. On the other hand, "congressmen" would require a plural verb, and "the N.R.A." would require a singular verb.
5. The subject is singular but has a plural form.
Mathematics never has been easy for me.
Great Expectations is a delightful novel.
A pronoun is a word that is used in a sentence as a substitute for a noun. The noun for which the pronoun stands is referred to as its antecedent. Examples:
Each student had his or her grade lowered on account of poor grammar.
All of the students had their grade lowered on account of poor grammar.
The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In the first example, because "student" is singular, it must take a singular pronoun. Because the gender of the antecedent is, in this case, undetermined, the pronoun choice of "his or her" offers both possibilities. In the second example, since "all" is plural, it requires a plural pronoun, "their."
In order to avoid the repetitive use of phrases such as "his or her," "she or he," and "hers or his," use a plural antecedent.
Often pronoun/antecedent agreement errors occur when the relationship between the terms is unclear because of one of these reasons:

1. There is more than one antecedent.
2. The antecedent is a collective noun.
3. The antecedent is an indefinite pronoun.

1. There is more than one antecedent.
Dickens and Disraeli show the influence of Carlyle in their novels.
Every college and university has its mascot.
When a compound antecedent is preceded by "each" or "every," as in the second example, use a singular pronoun.
2. The antecedent is a collective noun.
The M.L.A. is holding its annual convention in San Francisco this year.
The team of archaeologists left their tools behind at the site.
Whereas "the M.L.A." is regarded as a single entity, a "team" is generally thought of as a group of individuals. Therefore, "team" requires a plural pronoun.
3. The antecedent is an indefinite pronoun.
Everyone will take her turn in throwing the ball.
Each of the computers has its own printer.
One is not likely to forget one's umbrella when it's raining.
Most indefinite pronouns are singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include "all," "many," "few," "both," and "several."
Modifiers add information, expanding and enriching your sentences. Whenever possible, a modifier should be placed next to the headword, the word it adds information about. A misunderstanding and confusion is often the result when the headword does not exist or when the headword and modifier are separated.
Examples:
After reading the chapter, the author seemed to have a sound argument.
Many useful techniques are learned attending this seminar.
In both of these examples, the modifier has no headword, and so it is said to be dangling. The first sentence suggests that "the author" is also the reader. Of course, this is not what the writer intends, and so the sentence must be revised: "After reading the chapter, I believed that the author had a sound argument." The modifier is now placed next to its headword, I. The second sentence does not contain any possible subject for "attending this seminar," and so it too must be revised: "Attending this seminar, you will learn many useful techniques." By adding the headword, I have made it apparent who is expected to be "attending this seminar." Another possible revision strategy is to change the modifying phrase: "Many useful techniques are taught in this seminar."
Examples:
The professor told her students that they could have another day to finish the assignment in class yesterday.
Without a doubt the fastest way, he took the subway to work.
In both of these sentences, the modifiers are separated from their headwords. In other words, the modifiers are misplaced. In the first sentence, the position of the modifier suggests that "the assignment" was "in class yesterday." Clearly, however, this is not what the writer intended. We could revise this sentence by placing the modifier either before or after the headword: "In class yesterday, the professor told her students . . ."; "The professor, in class yesterday, told her students . . . ." In the second sentence, there are two misplaced modifiers, "without a doubt" and "the fastest way." A mechanical revision would simply place the modifiers next to their headwords: "He, without a doubt, took the subway, the fastest way, to work." Such a revision fails, however, to communicate the probable intent of the writer. In this case, the sentence should be more thoroughly rephrased: "Having no doubt that the subway would be the fastest way to work, he took it."
Ulysses passed beyond the Pillars of Heracles, and his ship was swallowed by the sea.
Orpheus, Heracles, Odysseus, Aeneas, and Dante are all mortals who visited the Underworld.
Note that the serial comma is used after every item, except the last, in the series.
Thinking he could win glory and honor, Dolon set off into the night to spy on the Achaeans.
While greeting her victorious husband, Clytaemnestra was plotting his murder.
Unfortunately, Oedipus was walking right into the irresistable and unmerciful jaws of fate.
The aim of culture is, if I may borrow from Arnold, our complete perfection.
Sonnets, which were first composed in the fourteenth century, consist of fourteen lines.
I asked the woman in the feathered hat, "Quill you write me your phone number?" "It's on the wing," she replied.
Of all poets, Homer has the clearest vision; Milton is blind compared to him.
Bunyan writes with a highly homiletic style; thus, he frequently comments on the pilgrim's experience by giving a series of three arguments.
The reading list for this semester includes three Victorian novels: Bleak House, Middlemarch, and The Return of the Native.
The eponymous character is autobio- graphical: like the author, he emerged from the obscurity of a gypsy life to become a respected literary critic and novelist.
Many colon errors would be avoided if only writers would remember this one rule: Colons are almost never used except at the end of an independent clause.
Use an apostrophe for the following:

1. to form the possessive of a singular noun (e.g., "a writer's craft")
2. to form the possessive of a plural noun ending in s (e.g., "the writers' craft")
3. to form the possessive of an irregular plural noun not ending in s (e.g., "women's studies")
4. to form the possessive of nouns in a series (e.g., "Kirszner and Mandell's book"), unless ownership is separate (e.g., "Kirszner's and Mandell's books")
5. to form the possessive of any singular proper noun (e.g., "James's criticism, Lewis's essays, and Forster's theory")
6. to form the possessive of any plural proper noun (e.g., "the Joneses' summer home and the Smiths' winter home")

Note: Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation or a number (e.g., "CDs," "1990s")
Dashes and parentheses, like commas, set off nonessential elements. Whereas parenthses de-emphasize the enclosed words, dashes tend to draw the reader's attention to the words set apart. As a general rule, if a clause or phrase can be put into parentheses, it should be omitted from your paper.
Back in those days--these were the days before television--we all used to be producers and directors of the imagination.
The artist had only primary colors--red, yellow, and blue--and secondary colors with which to paint.
Proud, selfish, deceitful, and murderous-- Odysseus's character makes him the very type of the flawed hero.
Carlyle observes, "The wretched are not cheerful company. Dante . . . was not a man to conciliate men."
Macaulay wrote of Edward Russell, "Bad as he was, he was much under the influence of two feelings . . . . Professional spirit and party spirit were strong in him."
Note that the three eliptical marks do not replace normal punctuation. Thus, a period is required after the elipses when the elipses indicate the omission of the end of a sentence.
Forgive my grief for one removed,
Thy creature, whom I found so fair.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forgive these wild and wandering cries,
Confusions of a wasted youth.
(See also "Presenting Quotations" in
When a clause or phrase is followed by a parenthetical citation, the normal punctuation for that clause or phrase is placed after the final parenthesis, unless the clause is a quotation that ends with an exclamation point or a question mark. Examples:
"What poets, I cried aloud, as one does in the dusk, what poets they were!" (Woolf 14).
Woolf makes the point, "For though we say that we know nothing about Shakespeare's state of mind, even as we say that, we are saying something about Shakespeare's state of mind" (56).
"No age can ever have been as stridently sex-conscious as our own," wrote Virginia Woolf in 1928 (99).
When a longer quotation is set apart and double-indented, place terminal punctuation marks before the parenthetical citation, immediately after the quotation. Example:
Those who find ugly meanings in beautiful things are corrupt without being charming. This is a fault. Those who find beautiful meanings in beautiful things are the cultivated. For these there is hope. (Wilde 17)